WEEK 5 - NETWORKING

NETWORKING

· Computer devices/equipments

· transmission media to send/control data/signals,

· Communication devices to transmit/send data from sources to destinations

· Software

 

LAN- LOCAL AREAS NETWORK

A Local area network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area. It is generally limited to a geographic area such as a writing lab, school, or building. Rarely are LAN computers more than a mile apart

WAN- WIDE AREA NETWORK

Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic areas, such as Johor Bahru, Malaysia, or the world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect this type of network

 

MAN- METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK

 

 PAN- PERSONAL AREA NETWORK

MAN usually is at home

 

TERMINAL & WORKSTATION

 

Terminals & workstation: Normally refers to data sources and destinations. Example: Personal computers, terminals, workstations, computers, Automatic teller machines (ATM)

TRANSMISSION MEDIA

 Transmission media: The physical media used to transmit data in a networked environment. It is also use to transmit signal and electrical pulse through a medium. 2 types of transmission media are bounded/guided and unbounded/unguided. Examples of bounded media are twisted pair wire, coaxial cable and fiber optic cables. Examples of unbounded are AM & FM radio, TV broadcasting, satellite communication, microwave radio, infrared signals

 

NETWORK ELECTRONIC

  Network electronic devices are devices that control data transmission from sources to destinations. It also act as interface between different transmission media or communication protocol. For examples: Bridges, concentrators, routers, Front End Processors, Private Branch, Switches Exchange (PBX), Hubs, Multiplexers, and Gateways.

SOFTWARE

 Software: At the nodes, it involves techniques and protocols. Functions of the software are measure the data transmits to the destination.

 

 

NETWORK ARCHITECTURE STANDARDS

Network architecture standards: Architecture is blueprint of standards for a network consisting of items such as choice of media, media interfaces, encoding methods, transmission protocols, routing protocols and so on. It is needed to ensure interoperability between various devices and equipment made by different vendors.

 

 

BRIDGES

 A bridge device filters data traffic at a network boundary. Bridges reduce the amount of traffic on a LAN by dividing it into two segments.

Bridges operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. Bridges inspect incoming traffic and decide whether to forward or discard it. An Ethernet bridge, for example, inspects each incoming Ethernet frame - including the source and destination MAC addresses, and sometimes the frame size - in making individual forwarding decisions.

Bridges serve a similar function as switches, that also operate at Layer 2. Traditional bridges, though, support one network boundary, whereas switches usually offer four or more hardware ports. Switches are sometimes called "multi-port bridges" for this reason.

 

HUB

In computer networking, a hub is a small, simple, inexpensive device that joins multiple computers together. Many network hubs available today support the Ethernet standard. Other types including USB hubs also exist, but Ethernet is the type traditionally used in home networking.

 

SWICTHES

A network switch is a small hardware device that joins multiple computers together within one local area network (LAN). Technically, network switches operate at layer two (Data Link Layer) of the OSI model.

 

PROTOCOL

Protocol specific a common set of rules and signal the computers on the network use to communicate. Most networks use Ethernet, but some networks may use IBM’s token Ring protocol

GATEWAYS

A gateway can translate information between different network data formats or network architectures. It can translate TCP/IP to AppleTalk so computers supporting TCP/IP can communicate with Apple brand computers. Most gateways operate at the application layer, but can operate at the network or session layer of the OSI model. Gateways will start at the lower level and strip information until it gets to the required level and repackage the information and work its way back toward the hardware layer of the OSI model. To confuse issues, when talking about a router that is used to interface to another network, the word gateway is often used. This does not mean the routing machine is a gateway as defined here, although it could be.

 

ROUTERS

A router is used to route data packets between two networks. It reads the information in each packet to tell where it is going. If it is destined for an immediate network it has access to, it will strip the outer packet, readdress the packet to the proper ethernet address, and transmit it on that network. If it is destined for another network and must be sent to another router, it will re-package the outer packet to be received by the next router and send it to the next router. The section on routing explains the theory behind this and how routing tables are used to help determine packet destinations. Routing occurs at the network layer of the OSI model. They can connect networks with different architectures such as Token Ring and Ethernet. Although they can transform information at the data link level, routers cannot transform information from one data format such as TCP/IP to another such as IPX/SPX. Routers do not send broadcast packets or corrupted packets. If the routing table does not indicate the proper address of a packet, the packet is discarded.

INFRA-RED
 

InfraRed is a energy radiation with a frequency below our eyes sensitivity, so we can not see it

Even that we can not "see" sound frequencies, we know that it exist, we can listen them.

 Even that we can not see or hear infrared, we can feel it at our skin temperature sensors.

When you approach your hand to fire or warm element, you will "feel" the heat, but you can't see it. You can see the fire because it emits other types of radiation, visible to your eyes, but it also emits lots of infrared that you can only feel in your skin.

DATA COMMUNICATIONS

Data communication

Definition

Data communication is very simply, the collection and distribution of the electronic representation of information from and to remote facilities by means of electrical transmission systems such as telephone lines, satellites or coaxial cable. The information can appear in a variety of formats; data, text, voice, still pictures, graphic and video.

Data comes in a variety of styles either in the form of text, voice, picture and video. All this type of information needs to be converted into signal that can be understood by the communication media in order to transmit the data from one place to another location

Type of signal:




Analogue signal

An analog signal is a continuous signal that contains time-varying quantities. Unlike a digital signal, which has a discrete value at each sampling point, an analog signal has constant fluctuations. The illustration below shows an analog pattern (represented as the curve) alongside a digital pattern (represented as the discrete lines).

An analog signal can be used to measure changes in some physical phenomena such as light, sound, pressure, or temperature. For instance, an analog microphone can convert sound waves into an analog signal. Even in digital devices, there is typically some analog component that is used to take in information from the external world, which will then get translated into digital form (using an analog-to-digital converter).

Digital signal

A digital signal refers to an electrical signal that is converted into a pattern of bits. Unlike an analog signal, which is a continuous signal that contains time-varying quantities, a digital signal has a discrete value at each sampling point. The precision of the signal is determined by how many samples are recorded per unit of time. For example, the illustration below shows an analog pattern (represented as the curve) alongside a digital pattern (represented as the discrete lines).

A digital signal is easily represented by a computer because each sample can be defined with a series of bits that are either in the state 1 (on) or 0 (off). Digital signals can be compressed and can include additional information for error correction.

Binary digits

A bit (a contraction of binary digit) is the basic unit of information in computing and telecommunications; it is the amount of information stored by a digital device or other physical system that exists in one of two possible distinct states. These may be the two stable states of a flip-flop, two positions of an electrical switch, two distinct voltage or current levels allowed by a circuit, two distinct levels of light intensity, two directions of magnetization or polarization, the orientation of reversible double stranded DNA, etc.

Binary refers to base two arithmetic using the digits 0 and 1. This corresponds to the electric current in a wire- its either On (a value of 1) or Off ( a value of 0) and this is known as a bit, derived from Binary dIgiT.

A binary number can be converted to base ten (decimal) by starting at the rightmost bit and multiplying each successive bit to the left by two. The rightmost bit is multiplied by 1, the next to the left by 2 then 4 etc.

In decimal arithmetic each place to the left is multipled by ten. The rightmost digit is multipled by one, the next to the left by ten, and so on.

14710 = (1 * 100) + (4 * 10) + (7 * 1).

10112 = (8 * 1) + (4 * 0) + (2 * 1) + (1*1) = 1110.

In programming, binary is sometimes used to save space by packing several boolean values into one int.

Data Transmission Mode




Parallel transmission



Serial transmission


Synchronous transmission



Asychronous transmission

The transmission mode refers to the number of elementary units of information (bits) that can be simultaneously translated by the communications channel. In fact, processors (and therefore computers in general) never process (in the case of recent processors) a single bit at a time; generally they are able to process several (most of the time it is 8: one byte), and for this reason the basic connections on a computer are parallel connections.

Parallel connection

Parallel connection means simultaneous transmission of N bits. These bits are sent simultaneously overN different channels (a channel being, for example, a wire, a cable or any other physical medium). The parallel connection on PC-type computers generally requires 10 wires.

These channels may be:

• N physical lines: in which case each bit is sent on a physical line (which is why parallel cables are made up of several wires in a ribbon cable)
• one physical line divided into several sub-channels by dividing up the bandwidth. In this case, each bit is sent at a different frequency...

Since the conductive wires are close to each other in the ribbon cable, interference can occur (particularly at high speeds) and degrade the signal quality...

Serial connection

In a serial connection, the data are sent one bit at a time over the transmission channel. However, since most processors process data in parallel, the transmitter needs to transform incoming parallel data into serial data and the receiver needs to do the opposite.

These operations are performed by a communications controller (normally a UART (Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter) chip). The communications controller works in the following manner:

• The parallel-serial transformation is performed using a shift register. The shift register, working together with a clock, will shift the register (containing all of the data presented in parallel) by one position to the left, and then transmit the most significant bit (the leftmost one) and so on:

• The serial-parallel transformation is done in almost the same way using a shift register. The shift register shifts the register by one position to the left each time a bit is received, and then transmits the entire register in parallel when it is full:

Synchronous and asynchronous transmission

Given the problems that arise with a parallel-type connection, serial connections are normally used. However, since a single wire transports the information, the problem is how to synchronise the transmitter and receiver, in other words, the receiver can not necessarily distinguish the characters (or more generally the bit sequences) because the bits are sent one after the other. There are two types of transmission that address this problem:

• An asynchronous connection, in which each character is sent at irregular intervals in time (for example a user sending characters entered at the keyboard in real time). So, for example, imagine that a single bit is transmitted during a long period of silence... the receiver will not be able to know if this is 00010000, 10000000 or 00000100...
  To remedy this problem, each character is preceded by some information indicating the start of character transmission (the transmission start information is called a START bit) and ends by sending end-of-transmission information (called STOP bit, there may even be several STOP bits).
• In a synchronous connection, the transmitter and receiver are paced by the same clock. The receiver continuously receives (even when no bits are transmitted) the information at the same rate the transmitter send it. This is why the transmitter and receiver are paced at the same speed. In addition, supplementary information is inserted to guarantee that there are no errors during transmission.

During synchronous transmission, the bits are sent successively with no separation between each character, so it is necessary to insert synchronisation elements; this is called character-level synchronisation.

The main disadvantage of synchronous transmission is recognising the data at the receiver, as there may be differences between the transmitter and receiver clocks. That is why each data transmission must be sustained long enough for the receiver to distinguish it. As a result, the transmission speed can not be very high in a synchronous link.

Data Flow


Simplex

• A simplex connection is a connection in which the data flows in only one direction, from the transmitter to the receiver. This type of connection is useful if the data do not need to flow in both directions (for example, from your computer to the printer or from the mouse to your computer...).

Half-Duplex

• A half-duplex connection (sometimes called an alternating connection or semi-duplex) is a connection in which the data flows in one direction or the other, but not both at the same time. With this type of connection, each end of the connection transmits in turn. This type of connection makes it possible to have bidirectional communications using the full capacity of the line.

Full Duplex

• A full-duplex connection is a connection in which the data flow in both directions simultaneously. Each end of the line can thus transmit and receive at the same time, which means that the bandwidth is divided in two for each direction of data transmission if the same transmission medium is used for both directions of transmission.